over

Forms

over^[1]

Etymology

It is inherited from Middle Dutch ōver, inherited from Old Dutch ovir, inherited from Proto-West Germanic *obar, inherited from Proto-Germanic *uber.^[2][1][3] The same word is Old Saxon oƀar, Old High German ubar (modern German über), Old Frisian over, Old English ofer (modern English over), Old Norse yfir (modern Swedish över) and Gothic 𐌿𐍆𐌰𐍂 (ufar).^[2][4][3] The EWN reconstructs the Germanic form as ⟨*uberi⟩.^[2]

Outside Germanic it matches Ancient Greek ὑπέρ (hupér, “above”), Sanskrit उपरि (upári), Old Irish for (“over”) and Latin super (“above”), whose ⟨s-⟩ is unexplained.^[2][5] These go back to Proto-Indo-European *upér, a derivative with ⟨-r⟩ of Proto-Indo-European *upo (“under, up from below”), which also gave op.^[2][1] De Vries took the suffix to be perhaps a comparative, and Van Veen and Van der Sijs call ⟨over⟩ possibly a comparative of ⟨op⟩.^[4][6] The same base without the suffix is seen in 𐌿𐍆 (uf, “under”) and ὑπό (hupó, “under”).^[4][5] The word belongs with boven, euvel and veroveren.^[4][7]

Earliest recorded meaning

The preposition is first recorded in the Wachtendonck Psalms of the 10th century, in ouir alla ertha “over all the earth”.^[2] In place names it appears earlier still, as in Uueromeri (Overmeer, North Holland) in a record dated 918, where it means “upper, upstream”.^[8]

Semantic evolution

The word first expressed that something is on the upper side of something else, at rest or in motion, and its figurative senses grew from that.^[7] In Old Dutch it is found only as the first part of place names.^[8] Middle Dutch used it as an adverb for “more than”, “on the far side”, “onwards”, “during”, “used up” and “again”, and as a preposition also for “towards”, “after” (a stretch of time), “about” and “because of”.^[9][1] An adjective over “upper” is recorded in Mechelen in 1291.^[9]

In overgrootvader (1567 ouer groot vader) the prefix means “beyond”.^[2] In the speech of Amsterdam Jews the preposition was also used in the sense “because of”.^[10][11] In radio talk over signals that the other party may speak.^[12]

The word went abroad with Dutch: Afrikaans oor, Negerhollands over, Berbice Dutch and Sranan ofru, Papiamentu ofer.^[1][13] Indonesian took oper from Dutch separable verbs such as overgeven and overnemen, for passing a ball and taking over a business, and Swedish till övers för may come from Dutch or Low German overhebben voor.^[13]

Timeline

• 901–1000 – Ouir alla ertha “over all the earth” is recorded in the Wachtendonck Psalms.^[2][14]
• 918 – The place name Uueromeri, Overmeer, is recorded.^[8]
• 1200 – The Middle Dutch preposition is recorded in Limburg.^[9]
• 1240 – The adverb ouer “on the far side, past” appears.^[2][9]
• 1291 – An adjective over “upper” is recorded in Mechelen.^[9]
• 1567 – Ouer groot vader “great-grandfather” appears.^[2]
• 1573 – Overgrootvader and overgrootmoeder are recorded.^[2]

Meanings

Preposition

1. Across or along a surface: Ze schaatsten over het meer.^[12][1]
2. Covering something: Hij trok een laken over de meubels.^[12]
3. On the other side of: Over de grens ligt een groot bos.^[12]
4. By way of, via: We rijden over Breda naar Antwerpen.^[12][15]
5. After a stated time, in: Over drie dagen is het vakantie.^[12][1]
6. During, spread over a period: Over het hele jaar viel weinig sneeuw.^[12]
7. About, concerning: Ze schreef een boek over uilen.^[12][1]
8. Because of: Hij klaagde over de herrie.^[12]
9. Above, past: Een zwerm ganzen vloog over het dorp.^[12][1]
10. More than: Mijn oom is ver over de zeventig.^[12][15]

Adverb

1. From one place to another: Gooi de bal maar over.^[12]
2. On the other side; in radio talk, signalling the end of a turn, as in over en uit.^[12]
3. Left, remaining: Er is nog wat taart over.^[12][1]
4. Past, finished: De storm is over.^[12][1]

Word family

• overal
• overheid
• overig
• overblijven
• overbrengen
• overdragen
• overdrijven
• overgeven
• overkomen
• overleggen
• overleveren
• overlopen
• overnemen
• overgrootvader

Related words

• over-
• op
• boven
• euvel
• veroveren
• English over
• German über

Usage notes

Iets over zich hebben “to have a certain air about one” goes back to Middle Dutch, where iet over hem hebben was common.^[16][12] In cricket de over is a series of six balls from one bowler.^[12]

References

1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Philippa, Marlies; Debrabandere, Frans; Quak, Arend; Schoonheim, Tanneke; Sijs, Nicoline van der (2003–2009), Etymologisch woordenboek van het Nederlands, 4 vols., Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press; online via etymologiebank.nl
3. ^ a b Kroonen, Guus (2013), Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 11, Leiden / Boston: Brill
4. ^ a b c d Vries, Jan de (1971), Nederlands etymologisch woordenboek, Leiden: Brill
5. ^ a b Franck, Johannes; Wijk, Nicolaas van (1912), Franck's Etymologisch woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal, 2nd ed., 's-Gravenhage: Nijhoff
6. ^ Veen, P. A. F. van; Sijs, Nicoline van der (1997), Etymologisch woordenboek: de herkomst van onze woorden, 2nd ed., Utrecht / Antwerpen: Van Dale Lexicografie
7. ^ a b Vries, Matthias de; Winkel, L. A. te, et al. (1882–1998), Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, 29 vols., 's-Gravenhage / Leiden: Nijhoff / Sijthoff / SDU; supplement 2001; gtb.ivdnt.org
8. ^ a b c Oudnederlands Woordenboek (2009–), Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal, Leiden; gtb.ivdnt.org
9. ^ a b c d e Pijnenburg, W. J. J., et al. (2001), Vroegmiddelnederlands woordenboek: woordenboek van het Nederlands van de dertiende eeuw in hoofdzaak op basis van het Corpus-Gysseling, Leiden: Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie; gtb.ivdnt.org
10. ^ Beem, H. (1974), Uit Mokum en de mediene: Joodse woorden in Nederlandse omgeving, Assen: Van Gorcum
11. ^ Kamp, Jacob van de; Wijk, Jacob van der (2006), Koosjer Nederlands: Joodse woorden in de Nederlandse taal, Amsterdam: Contact
12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Van Dale Groot woordenboek hedendaags Nederlands (2014), Utrecht / Antwerpen: Van Dale Uitgevers
13. ^ a b Sijs, Nicoline van der (2010), Nederlandse woorden wereldwijd, Den Haag: Sdu; with additions from the Uitleenwoordenbank (2015)
14. ^ Sijs, Nicoline van der (2001), Chronologisch woordenboek: de ouderdom en herkomst van onze woorden en betekenissen, Amsterdam / Antwerpen: Veen
15. ^ a b WikiWoordenboek (Dutch Wiktionary), nl.wiktionary.org
16. ^ Stoett, F. A. (1923–1925), Nederlandsche spreekwoorden, spreekwijzen, uitdrukkingen en gezegden, 4th ed., 3 vols., Zutphen: Thieme