*h₂eǵ-

*h₂eǵ-¹ to drive

Reconstruction

LIV sets up the root as 1.*h₂eg̑- "to drive", numbering it apart from 2.*h₂eg̑- "to say",^[1] and NIL has *h₂eĝ- "to drive".^[2] Beekes writes *h₂eǵ- "to drive, lead",^[3] de Vaan the present *h₂eǵ-e/o- "to drive, lead",^[4] and Sihler *H₂eǵ- "drive".^[5] Beekes's handbook gives it as a model of laryngeal ablaut: full grade *h₂eǵ- in Ancient Greek ἄγω (ágō) and Latin agō, o-grade *h₂oǵ- in ὄγμος (ógmos), zero grade *h₂ǵ- in gerō from *h₂ǵ-es-.^[6] LIV notes that if Poetto's comparison of Hieroglyphic Luwian katta aka- (“to subjugate”) were right, the root would have to be *h₁ag̑-, and would then no longer be a homonym of 2.*h₂eg̑-.^[1]

Morphology

The one formation LIV reconstructs for PIE is the thematic present *h₂ég̑-e-, with an i-reduplicated present *h₂i-h₂g̑-é- in Sanskrit ईजते (ī́jate, “drives”) beside it; the reduplicated present was probably iterative at first, and Strunk takes it to be an Indo-Iranian formation.^[1] LIV classes the aorists and perfects as innovations of the branches: the reduplicated aorist Ancient Greek ἤγαγον (ḗgagon), the perfect Latin ēgī, an analogical formation, and the preterite Old Norse ók, one of the models of the sixth class of Germanic strong verbs.^[1] Beekes likewise calls ἄγω an old thematic present, and says the verb was originally present only.^[3] Adams finds Tocharian giving evidence only for the thematic present too, and calls the agreement of a Sanskrit perfect known from the grammarians with the Old Norse one trivial.^[7]

Evidence

LIV's list covers Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Armenian, Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic and Tocharian: eight branches, none of them Anatolian, Baltic, Slavic or Albanian.^[1] The Armenian verb lacks the initial h- expected from *h₂e-.^[8] Martirosyan reports that Kortlandt therefore derived Old Armenian ածեմ (acem) from *h₂ǵ-es-, like Latin gerō, while Clackson keeps the thematic present *h₂eǵe/o- and explains the missing h- from the influence of compounds associated with the verb.^[8]

Meanings

1. to drive,^[1][2] to lead^[6]

Beekes and de Vaan join both senses, "to drive, lead".^[3][4] In Greek, Welsh and Old Norse the verb also became intransitive, "to move on, to go", through the omission of the object.^[1]

Derivatives

• *h₂eǵ-ro- "field", a ro-stem: Sanskrit अज्र (ájra), Ancient Greek ἀγρός (agrós), Latin ager, Gothic 𐌰𐌺𐍂𐍃 (akrs).^[9]
• *h₂oǵ-mo-: Ancient Greek ὄγμος (ógmos, “furrow”), matching Sanskrit अज्म (ájma, “trajectory”).^[3] Beekes takes the pair as proof that *h₂o gave Greek ο.^[3]
• *h₂áĝ-tor-: Ancient Greek ἄκτωρ (áktōr) and Latin āctor,^[2] though Beekes allows that the Latin word may be an independent formation.^[3]
• *h₂ōĝ-í-: Avestan āzi-, with a Vedic cognate.^[2] Adams takes Tocharian B āk (“zeal”) for the equivalent of the Sanskrit noun or of Middle Irish āg (“combat”).^[7]
• *u̯n̥-h₂aĝ-(t)-: Ancient Greek ἄναξ (ánax) and Mycenaean Greek wa-na-ka, with a Vedic cognate.^[2]

Reflexes

• Indo-Aryan: Sanskrit ईजते (ī́jate, “drives”), from LIV's list.^[1]
• Iranian: Avestan azaiti (“drives”), from LIV's list.^[1]
• Armenian: Old Armenian ածեմ (acem, “to bring, lead, move”).^[8]
• Greek: Ancient Greek ἄγω (ágō, “to drive, lead, bring, carry”).^[3]
• Italic: Latin agō (“to drive”), Oscan acum (“to act legally”).^[4]
• Celtic: Old Irish agid (“drives”), Old Welsh hegit (“goes”).^[10]
• Germanic: Old Norse aka (“to drive, ride”), from LIV's list.^[1]
• Tocharian: Tocharian B āk- (“to lead, guide, drive”).^[7]

*h₂eǵ-² to say

Reconstruction

LIV sets up 2.*h₂eg̑- "to say", and notes that *h₂ is required above all by Tocharian, following Hackstein, and that nothing compelling speaks against it.^[11] Matasović also writes *h₂eǵ- "say".^[12] Beekes gives *h₁eǵ- "say", or *h₂eǵ-, and says Armenian a- from *h₁- before a consonant would be regular.^[13] De Vaan reconstructs *h₁/₂eǵ-ie/o-: Greek, Armenian and Tocharian point to *h₁ǵ- or perhaps *h₂ǵ-, and if the root was *h₂eǵ- it is generally taken to be a different root from *h₂eǵ- "to drive".^[14] Adams writes *h₁ēĝ-, or possibly *h₁eh₁ĝ-.^[15]

Morphology

LIV reconstructs a root aorist *h₂ég̑-/h₂g̑-, a zero-grade i̯é-present *h₂g̑-i̯é-, a perfect *h₂e-h₂óg̑/h₂g̑- and an s-desiderative *h₂ég̑/h₂g̑-s-.^[11] The Greek aorist Ancient Greek ἦ (ê, “said”) continues *é-h₂eg̑-t; a stem ἠ- was abstracted from it, and on that stem the post-Homeric present ἠμί was built.^[11] Beekes writes the aorist *h₁e-h₁eǵ-t, ablauting with the perfect ἄνωγα (ánōga), from *-h₁e-h₁oǵ-.^[13] De Vaan sets up a present Proto-Italic *agje/o- for Latin aiō, and reports Nussbaum's view that an s-formation of Latin meaning "to name" is an s-present with roots in PIE, like Tocharian B āks-.^[14] Adams starts both Tocharian and Latin from a present *h₁ĝs-e/o-.^[15]

Evidence

LIV cites Greek, Armenian, Latin and Tocharian, and a doubtful Old Church Slavonic form.^[11] Matasović thinks a Celtic noun for "assembly" may belong here as well.^[12]

Competing analyses

The initial laryngeal is disputed.^[11][13] LIV and Matasović write *h₂-, LIV following Hackstein's argument from Tocharian.^[11][12] Beekes and Adams prefer *h₁-, and Beekes calls Hackstein's link with Ancient Greek ἄζω (ázō) improbable.^[13][15]

Meanings

1. to say^[11][13][14]

Derivatives

• *h₂ǵ-tu-, an abstract that Matasović suggests in Proto-Celtic *fare-xtu- (“conversation, assembly”), Old Irish airecht (“assembly”).^[12]

Reflexes

• Armenian: Old Armenian ասեմ (asem, “to say”), from LIV's list.^[11]
• Greek: Ancient Greek ἄνωγα (ánōga, “to command, order”), and the aorist Ancient Greek ἦ (ê, “he said”).^[13]
• Italic: Latin aiō (“to say”).^[14]
• Celtic: perhaps Old Irish airecht (“assembly”).^[12]
• Tocharian: Tocharian B āks- (“to tell, announce, proclaim”).^[15]