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*wer-

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Etymology and origin of the Proto-Indo-European word *wer-

LIV sets up three verbal roots of this shape, numbering them 1 to 3 and marking the second with a question mark.[1] Pokorny set up a further root *u̯er- 3 "to turn, bend",[2] which is not among LIV's three roots.[3] Watkins took *wert- "to turn" (*wert-) for an extended form of that root.[4] The root for "to say" is *u̯erh₁- in LIV (*werh₁-).[5]

*wer-1 to hold back, fend off

Confidence
Probable

Reconstruction

LIV reconstructs 1.*u̯er- "to hold back, to fend off, to repel", with no initial laryngeal.[1] Kroonen instead sets up *h₂uer-, citing Lubotsky.[6]

Morphology

LIV's best-supported formations are an amphidynamic u-present *u̯ér/ur-u-, in Ancient Greek ἔρυμαι (érumai), and an iterative *u̯or-éi̯e-, in Gothic 𐍅𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽 (warjan); it marks a root aorist, a néu̯-present and a perfect as doubtful.[1] According to LIV, a u-extension that probably came from the u-present was specialised to "protect, save" in Vedic nouns for "protection" and "protector".[1] Beekes finds two ablaut grades in Greek, full and zero, the zero grade certainly in the perfect, from *ϝέ-ϝρῡ-ται.[7]

Evidence

The root is cited from Greek, Germanic and Indo-Iranian.[1] In Indo-Iranian it fell together with 1.*u̯el- "to enclose" and *Hu̯er- "to enclose, to put in", so that the Vedic and Avestan forms are hard to assign.[1] Cheung also finds the Iranian verb "to ward off" very hard to separate from the one meaning "to cover", and notes that Pokorny and LIV derive the Sanskrit verb "to restrain, ward off" from *u̯er-.[8] Beekes notes that the missing trace of the digamma in Homer raises doubts about *ϝέρυ-μαι.[7]

Competing analyses

Kroonen derives Gothic 𐍅𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽 (warjan) from *h₂uor-éie-, a causative of *h₂uer-, and joins to it Sanskrit वृणोति (vṛṇóti, “to cover, to stop”), from *h₂ur-néu-, and Latin aperiō (“to open”).[6] Sihler also sets up a *wer- "cover", with aperiō from *ap-weryō "uncover".[9] Beekes reports Hackstein's view that Ancient Greek ἔρυμαι (érumai) belongs to *su̯erh₃-, the root Hackstein reconstructs for Ancient Greek ὁράω (horáō).[7]

Meanings

  1. to hold back, to fend off[1]

Ancient Greek ἔρυμαι (érumai) means "to keep off, to protect, to save".[7] Mallory and Adams gloss their *wer- as "surround, cover, contain", citing Latin aperiō, ἔρυμαι (érumai) and Sanskrit वृणोति (vṛṇóti).[10]

Derivatives

  • Beekes cites the Sanskrit nouns for "protector" and "defense, protection" as support for an original *ϝέρυ-μαι.[7]

Reflexes

  • Greek: Ancient Greek ἔρυμαι (érumai, “to keep off, to protect, to save”).[7]
  • Germanic: Gothic 𐍅𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽 (warjan, “to hinder, to prevent”), Old Norse verja (“to defend, to guard”).[6]
  • Iranian: perhaps Old Avestan niuuar- (“to defend”), whose meaning is uncertain.[8]

*wer-2 to run

Confidence
Uncertain

Reconstruction

LIV sets up ?2.*u̯er- "to run", with a question mark.[11] Smoczyński takes the Baltic verbs from a Proto-Baltic *u̯er- and a PIE *u̯er- "to run", citing LIV.[12]

Morphology

LIV posits a doubtful amphidynamic root present *u̯ér-/u̯r- for Latvian vert (“to run”), whose present may also be a new or remade formation, and a doubtful causative-iterative *u̯or-éi̯e- in Lithuanian varýti (“to drive”).[11] Smoczyński explains varýti as a causative with o-grade, meaning at first "to make someone run".[12]

Evidence

The root is found only in Balto-Slavic.[11] LIV adds, after Vasmer, Slavic words for "to anticipate" and "quick".[11]

Meanings

  1. to run[11]

Reflexes

  • Baltic: Latvian vert (“to run”), Lithuanian varýti (“to drive, to make move”).[12]

*wer-3 to observe, perceive

Confidence
Probable

Reconstruction

LIV reconstructs 3.*u̯er- "to observe, to perceive".[3] De Vaan writes *u(e)r-eh₁- "to note, sense" for the Latin stem, Adams *wer- "perceive, pay attention to", and Kroonen *uer-.[13][14][6] Mallory and Adams give *wer- "perceive, give attention to".[15]

Morphology

LIV sets up a doubtful sk̑é-present *u̯r̥-sk̑é- for Tocharian "to smell" and an essive *u̯r̥-h₁i̯é- for Latin vereor, with a secondary full grade; an e-grade i̯e-present in Latvian and a Tocharian perfect are innovations.[3] It also cites the verbal nouns *u̯or-o-, in Tocharian B were (“smell”) and Germanic "attentive", and *u̯or-éh₂-, in Germanic "attention".[3]

Evidence

The root is cited from Italic, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic and Tocharian.[3][16] Greek is disputed: de Vaan says Ancient Greek ὁράω (horáō) and Ancient Greek οὖρος (oûros, “watcher”) may go back to *wer- or *ser-,[13] LIV puts Homeric ὄρονται (órontai) under 1.*ser- instead,[3] and Matasović doubts that ὁράω (horáō) belongs here.[16] Beekes finds that the imperfect and perfect of ὁράω (horáō) point to an original ϝ-.[17]

Meanings

  1. to observe, to perceive[3]

Latin "to fear, to respect" comes from "to watch anxiously", according to LIV.[3] Adams compares the Tocharian meaning "to smell" with French sentir (“to smell”) from Latin "feel".[14] Mallory and Adams take English "wary" and "beware" as a fair approximation of the underlying sense.[18]

Derivatives

  • Proto-Germanic *wara- (“aware”), an o-stem *uor-o-.[6]
  • Proto-Celtic *kow-wari- (“proper, fitting”), with Old Irish cóir.[16]
  • Tocharian B were (“smell”), from *wóro-.[13]

Reflexes

  • Italic: Latin vereor (“to show respect, to fear”).[13]
  • Germanic: Gothic 𐍅𐌰𐍂𐍃 (wars, “cautious”), Old English wær (“aware”).[6]
  • Celtic: Old Irish cóir (“proper, fitting”).[16]
  • Baltic: LIV cites Latvian vērtiês (“to look, to see”).[3]
  • Tocharian: Tocharian B wärsk- (“to smell”).[14]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Rix, Helmut, et al. (2001), Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed., Wiesbaden: Reichert, p. s.v. 1.*u̯er-
  2. ^ Pokorny, Julius (1959), Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bern; Munich: Francke, p. s.v. u̯er-3
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Rix, Helmut, et al. (2001), Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed., Wiesbaden: Reichert, p. s.v. 3.*u̯er-
  4. ^ Watkins, Calvert (2000), "Indo-European Roots", appendix to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. s.v. re-
  5. ^ Rix, Helmut, et al. (2001), Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed., Wiesbaden: Reichert, p. s.v. *u̯erh₁-
  6. ^ a b c d e f Kroonen, Guus (2013), Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 11, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. 574
  7. ^ a b c d e f Beekes, Robert S. P. (2010), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, with the assistance of Lucien van Beek, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 10, Leiden; Boston: Brill, p. s.v. ἔρυμαι
  8. ^ a b Cheung, Johnny (2007), Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb, Leiden: Brill, p. 232
  9. ^ Sihler, Andrew L. (1995), New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, New York: OUP
  10. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World, Oxford: OUP
  11. ^ a b c d e Rix, Helmut, et al. (2001), Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed., Wiesbaden: Reichert, p. s.v. ?2.*u̯er-
  12. ^ a b c Smoczyński, Wojciech (2018), Lithuanian Etymological Dictionary, Berlin: Peter Lang, p. 2162
  13. ^ a b c d de Vaan, Michiel (2008), Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 7, Leiden; Boston: Brill, p. s.v. vereor
  14. ^ a b c Adams, Douglas Q. (2013), A Dictionary of Tocharian B, 2nd ed., Amsterdam: Rodopi, p. 647
  15. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World, Oxford: OUP, p. 325
  16. ^ a b c d Matasović, Ranko (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic, Leiden: Brill, p. 226
  17. ^ Beekes, Robert S. P. (2010), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, with the assistance of Lucien van Beek, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 10, Leiden; Boston: Brill, p. s.v. ὁράω
  18. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World, Oxford: OUP, p. 327

Descendants

Cite this entry

“*wer-.” Etymologically, 7 Nov. 2026, etymologically.com/ine-pro/*wer-. Accessed 8 Nov. 2026.

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