Etymologically
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кто

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Pronunciation

  • [kto], [xto][1]

Forms

кто (kto) m[1]

Etymology

It is inherited from Old East Slavic къто (kŭto), from Proto-Slavic *kъto.[1][2][3] The other Slavic forms are Ukrainian хто (xto), Belarusian хто (xto), Old Church Slavonic къто (kŭto), Serbo-Croatian тко (tko) and ко (ko), Slovene kdo, Czech kdo, Slovak kto, Polish kto, Upper Sorbian štó and Lower Sorbian chto;[2][4] the Bulgarian word is кой (koj).[2][4] In Czech the ⟨d⟩ is due to kde (“where”), and in Upper Sorbian the ⟨š⟩ to the word for “what”.[2]

The word is a compound of the pronoun *kъ and the emphatic particle *-to, the neuter of тот.[3][2][5] Shaposhnikov stresses that the particle is a Slavic innovation, not the Indo-European ending *-t or *-d, and pairs the word with что, which has the other vowel ⟨ь⟩.[6] The pronoun continues the Indo-European interrogative stem Proto-Indo-European *kʷos (*kʷo-, *kʷe-);[1][4][3] its cognates are Lithuanian kas, Latvian kas, Old Prussian kas, Avestan ka-, Homeric τέο (téo, “of whom”), Latin quis and quī (“which”), Oscan pui, Old High German hwaz (“what”) and Hittite kui-.[2][4][3]

Earliest recorded meaning

The Izbornik of 1076 asks „Къто даст(ь) главѣ моей воду и очима моима слъзы” “who will give water to my head and tears to my eyes?”.[7] Chernykh dates къто and the genitive кого from the oldest Old Russian texts.[4]

Semantic evolution

The relative use appears in the Novgorod First Chronicle under 1209: „Кто вы добръ, того любите” “whoever is good to you, love him”.[7] The same chronicle has ктоже “everyone” under 1238.[7] Shaposhnikov records къто, кого and кто in the 11th–17th centuries, and SlRJa also the spelling хто;[6][7] the form with ⟨х⟩ is still the popular pronunciation.[2] In 1673 Avvakum asks „Кто есмь азъ? Умерый песъ!” “Who am I? A dead dog!”.[7] Zelenin noted the joking answer кто-ка to the question “who?”.[2]

Timeline

  • 1076 – „Къто даст(ь)” in the Izbornik of 1076.[7]
  • 1209 – the relative use in the Novgorod First Chronicle.[7]
  • 1238 – ктоже “everyone” in the Novgorod First Chronicle.[7]
  • 1673 – „Кто есмь азъ?” in Avvakum's Life.[7]

Meanings

Pronoun

  1. (interrogative and relative) who: points to the person or people spoken of.[8][1]
  2. (distributive, repeated) Some … others: кто в лес, кто по дрова “some to the wood, some for firewood”, of people pulling in different directions.[8]
  3. (colloquial, indefinite) anyone, someone, like кто-нибудь.[8]

Word family

  • кое-кто
  • кто-либо
  • кто-нибудь
  • кто-то
  • некто
  • некого
  • никто

Usage notes

The cases are кого, кому, кем and о ком.[8] Wiktionary gives it masculine agreement.[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Vasmer, Max (1964–1973), Ètimologičeskij slovar' russkogo jazyka, transl. and suppl. by O. N. Trubačev, 4 vols., Moskva: Progress, p. 2, 393–394
  3. ^ a b c d Shansky, N. M.; Zhuravlev, A. F. (eds.) (1963–2007), Ètimologičeskij slovar' russkogo jazyka [Этимологический словарь русского языка], vols. 1–10 (A–M), Moskva: Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta, p. 8, s.v. кто
  4. ^ a b c d e Chernykh, P. Ya. (1993), Istoriko-ètimologičeskij slovar' sovremennogo russkogo jazyka [Историко-этимологический словарь современного русского языка], 2 vols., Moskva: Russkij jazyk, p. 1, s.v. кто
  5. ^ Shansky, N. M.; Ivanov, V. V.; Shanskaya, T. V. (1975), Kratkij ètimologičeskij slovar' russkogo jazyka [Краткий этимологический словарь русского языка], 3rd ed., Moskva: Prosveščenie, p. s.v. кто
  6. ^ a b Shaposhnikov, A. K. (2010), Ètimologičeskij slovar' sovremennogo russkogo jazyka [Этимологический словарь современного русского языка], 2 vols., Moskva: Flinta / Nauka, p. 1, 446
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Barkhudarov, S. G. et al. (eds.) (1975–), Slovar' russkogo jazyka XI–XVII vv. [Словарь русского языка XI–XVII вв.], vols. 1–31, Moskva: Nauka / Azbukovnik / Lexrus, p. 8, 101
  8. ^ a b c d Ozhegov, S. I.; Shvedova, N. Yu. (1997), Tolkovyj slovar' russkogo jazyka [Толковый словарь русского языка], 4th ed., Moskva: Azbukovnik, p. s.v. кто