hard English · revision 1816

+ {{infobox|confidence=established|formation=inherited|attested=c. 725 (Beowulf)|origins=ine-pro *kar-}}

+

+ ==Pronunciation==

+ * IPA: /hɑːd/ ''(UK)''; /hɑːrd/ ''(US)''^(Roach et al. 2011)

+

+ ==Etymology==

+ It is [[inh|enm|hard]], [[inh|ang|heard|t=solid, firm; severe]],^(Barnhart 1995)^(Etymonline) from [[gem-pro|*harduz]],^(Barnhart 1988)^(Etymonline)^(Hoad 1986) whose descendants include [[ofs|herd]], [[osx|hard]], [[nl|hard]], [[goh|harti]] (modern [[de|hart]]), [[non|harðr]] and [[got|𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌳𐌿𐍃|tr=hardus]].^(Barnhart 1988)^(SOED 2002)^(Klein 1966) It goes back to [[ine-pro|*kortu-]], a suffixed form of the root [[m|ine-pro|*kar-|t=hard]],^(Etymonline)^(Barnhart 1988) and is related to [[grc|κρατύς|tr=kratús|t=strong]] and [[m|grc|κράτος|tr=krátos|t=strength]],^(Hoad 1986)^(Klein 1966)^(SOED 2002) the source of the ending [[-cracy]].^(RHWU) The adverb is from Old English [[m|ang|hearde]].^(Barnhart 1995)^(MWU 2024)

+

+ ==Earliest recorded meaning==

+ Not yielding or soft, solid, firm (about 725, in ''Beowulf''); also, in Old English, difficult to endure, and of people severe or cruel.^(Barnhart 1988)^(Etymonline)

+

+ ==Semantic evolution==

+ The sense “difficult to do” dates from about 1200.^(Etymonline) ''Hard of hearing'' keeps an obsolete Middle English sense, “having difficulty in doing something”.^(Etymonline)^(Weekley 1921) The adverb meant “with effort or energy” from the late 14th century.^(Etymonline) Water containing mineral salts has been called ''hard'' since the 1650s and consonants since 1775.^(Etymonline) ''Hard'' meaning “strong, alcoholic” (''hard cider'') dates from 1789, and probably led to ''hard drugs'' (1955).^(Etymonline)^(Dalzell 2013) Later compounds include ''hard times'' (1705), ''hard money'', coin rather than paper (1706), ''hard facts'' (1853), ''hard copy'' (1964) and ''hard disk'' (1978).^(Etymonline) Weekley notes that ''hard up'' was originally a nautical steering term, and that the Middle English sense “firm ground” survives in ''Portsmouth Hard'', a landing place.^(Weekley 1921)^(Hoad 1986)

+

+ ==Timeline==

+ * c. 725 – Old English ''heard'', solid, firm; adverb ''hearde'' (''Beowulf'').^(Barnhart 1988)

+ * 1126 – Middle English ''hard''.^(Barnhart 1995)

+ * c. 1200 – difficult to do.^(Etymonline)

+ * 1340 – stingy (now rare).^(HTOED)

+ * late 14th century – adverb, with effort or energy.^(Etymonline)

+ * 1650s – of water, containing mineral salts.^(Etymonline)

+ * 1705 – ''hard times''.^(Etymonline)

+ * 1775 – of consonants.^(Etymonline)

+ * 1789 – of drink, strong, alcoholic.^(Etymonline)^(Dalzell 2013)

+ * 1886 – ''hard-boiled'' (American).^(Barnhart 1988)

+ * 1955 – ''hard drugs''.^(Etymonline)^(Dalzell 2013)

+ * 1964 – ''hard copy''.^(Etymonline)

+

+ ==Modern meaning==

+ ===Adjective===

+ # Firm and solid; not easily broken, bent or pierced.^(AHD)^(COED 2004)

+ # Difficult to do or understand: ''a hard question''.^(AHD)^(COED 2004)^(Collins 2023)

+ # Needing or showing great effort: ''hard work''.^(AHD)^(Collins 2023)

+ # Strict or harsh: ''a hard taskmaster''.^(AHD)^(COED 2004)^(Collins 2023)

+ # Severe; difficult to bear: ''a hard winter''.^(AHD)^(Collins 2023)

+ # Physically or mentally tough.^(AHD)^(COED 2004)

+ # Of water, containing dissolved mineral salts.^(Etymonline)

+ # Of drink, strongly alcoholic; of drugs, strongly addictive.^(MWU 2024)^(Dalzell 2013)

+

+ ===Adverb===

+ # With great effort: ''worked hard''.^(AHD)^(MWU 2024)

+ # With great force: ''raining hard''.^(AHD)^(MWU 2024)

+ # Close, near: ''hard by''.^(AHD)

+ # ''(nautical)'' To the limit: ''hard right''.^(MWU 2024)

+

+ ===Noun===

+ # ''(British)'' A firm beach or landing place.^(MWU 2024)^(Hoad 1986)

+ # ''(British slang)'' Hard labour.^(MWU 2024)

+

+ ==Word family==

+ * [[blowhard]]

+ * [[hard-bitten]]

+ * [[hard-hit]]

+ * [[hard-hitting]]

+ * [[hard-pressed]]

+ * [[hard-wired]]

+ * [[hard-won]]

+

+ ==Related words==

+ * [[hardy]]

+ * [[harden]]

+ * [[hardly]]

+ * [[-ard]]

+ * [[-cracy]]

+

+ ==Usage notes==

+ ''Hard'' is the most general word for something requiring great effort, while ''difficult'' is often preferred when skill or ingenuity is needed, and ''arduous'' stresses sustained exertion.^(AHD)^(RHWU)

+

+ ==References==

+ {{reflist}}