against English · revision 1783

+ {{infobox|confidence=established|formation=derivation|attested=c. 1160|origins=ang ongeagn}}

+

+ ==Pronunciation==

+ * IPA: /əˈɡen(t)st/, /əˈɡeɪn(t)st/ ''(UK)''; /əˈɡentst/ ''(US)''^(Roach et al. 2011)

+

+ ==Etymology==

+ It is [[inh|enm|agenes|t=in opposition to]], [[m|enm|againes]],^(Barnhart 1995)^(AHD)^(MWU 2024) formed [[af|enm|agen|-es|t1=again|t2=adverbial genitive ending]] (see [[again]]),^(Barnhart 1995)^(COED 2004)^(Etymonline) the first part being [[inh|ang|ongeagn|t=opposite]].^(AHD)^(Barnhart 1995) Etymonline describes ''agenes'' as originally a southern variant of the preposition [[m|enm|agan]].^(Etymonline) The final ''-t'' is not etymological: forms in -st began to appear about 1300 and became standard by the early 16th century,^(Barnhart 1988)^(Etymonline) probably by association with superlatives ending in -st, as also in [[amongst]], [[amidst]], [[whilst]] and [[betwixt]].^(COED 2004)^(Barnhart 1988)^(Chambers 2008) The Middle English Dictionary, quoted by Barnhart, takes the -st forms to be abstracted from the sequence ‘agen(e)s the’,^(Barnhart 1988) and Merriam-Webster likewise suggests partial assimilation to a following article.^(MWU 2024)

+

+ ==Earliest recorded meaning==

+ In opposition to, hostile to; also in the opposite direction, in contact with, in front of (probably before 1160).^(Barnhart 1995)^(Etymonline)^(HTOED)

+

+ ==Semantic evolution==

+ Old English already used the preposition ''ongeagn'' in the sense “contrary to, not in keeping with”, which ''against'' continues.^(HTOED) By the late 12th century it also meant “in anticipation of, in preparation for” and “directly opposite, facing”, the latter now surviving only in ''over against'';^(HTOED)^(OED 1989) by about 1225 it meant “in exchange for”.^(HTOED) Some medieval senses have died out: “in the presence of” (until about 1530), “with respect to” (until the 18th century) and “exposed to” the sun or cold (into the 19th century).^(HTOED)^(OED 1989) Later senses include “in contact with, supported by” (1447), “in competition with” (1591), the betting use “in expectation of the failure of” (1655) and “having as a background” (1805).^(HTOED) As a conjunction, “against the time that”, hence “before”, it is recorded from the 14th century and is now archaic or regional,^(Etymonline)^(MWU 2024)^(HTOED) as in Dickens's “throw on another log of wood against father comes home”.^(MW Collegiate) In American slang ''up against'' a drug meant addicted to it, from 1892.^(GDoS)

+

+ ==Timeline==

+ * c. 1160 – ''agenes'', in opposition to.^(Barnhart 1995)

+ * c. 1175 – in preparation for; facing.^(HTOED)^(OED 1989)

+ * c. 1225 – in exchange for.^(HTOED)

+ * c. 1300 – forms with final -t begin to appear.^(Barnhart 1988)

+ * 14th century – as a conjunction, before the time that.^(MW Collegiate)^(HTOED)

+ * 1447 – in contact with, leaning on.^(HTOED)

+ * early 16th century – ''against'' becomes the standard form.^(Etymonline)

+ * 1591 – in competition with.^(HTOED)

+ * 1655 – in betting, expecting the failure of.^(HTOED)

+ * 1805 – having as a background.^(HTOED)

+ * 1843 – as a noun, those who vote against.^(HTOED)

+

+ ==Modern meaning==

+ ===Preposition===

+ # In [[opposition]] or hostility to: ''fought against the legislation''.^(AHD)^(MW Collegiate)^(Collins 2023)

+ # Contrary to: ''against the law''.^(MW Collegiate)^(RHWU)

+ # In [[competition]] with.^(AHD)^(MW Collegiate)

+ # In the opposite direction to: ''row against the current''.^(AHD)^(RHWU)

+ # So as to strike or press on; in contact with: ''leaned against the tree''.^(AHD)^(Collins 2023)

+ # In contrast with, or having as a [[background]]: ''dark against the sky''.^(AHD)^(Collins 2023)^(RHWU)

+ # In preparation for, or as a protection from: ''a shelter against the cold''.^(AHD)^(MW Collegiate)^(COED 2004)

+ # Charged to an account, so as to reduce or secure a debt.^(AHD)^(COED 2004)

+ # ''(betting)'' In expectation of the failure of: ''odds of 5 to 1 against''.^(COED 2004)^(HTOED)

+ # Directly opposite; facing, now chiefly in ''over against''.^(AHD)^(MW Collegiate)^(OED 1989)

+

+ ===Conjunction===

+ # ''(archaic or regional)'' Before; in readiness for the time when.^(MW Collegiate)^(MWU 2024)^(Etymonline)

+

+ ==Word family==

+ * [[thereagainst]]

+ * [[crime against humanity]]

+ * [[crime against nature]]

+ * [[over against]]

+

+ ==Related words==

+ * [[again]]

+ * [[amongst]]

+ * [[amidst]]

+ * [[whilst]]

+ * [[betwixt]]

+

+ ==References==

+ {{reflist}}