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of

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Pronunciation

Forms

of[1] Older ofte, still found in nooit ofte nimmer and in oftewel.[2]

Etymology

It is inherited from Middle Dutch of (also ofte, ochte), inherited from Old Dutch of (“if, whether”).[2][1][3] In modern Dutch the subordinating conjunction “if, whether”, recorded in Old Dutch, has fallen together with the coordinating Middle Dutch conjunction “or”, whose origin differs, and already the earliest Middle Dutch uses each form in both functions.[2][4][5]

The subordinating conjunction matches Old Saxon of (later Middle Low German jof), Old High German oba (modern German ob), Old Frisian jef, Old English gif (modern English if), Old Norse ef and Gothic 𐌾𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌹 (jabai, “if”), 𐌹𐌱𐌰𐌹 (ibai, “whether, lest”).[2][6][7] These forms do not lead clearly to one ancestor, but most scholars reconstruct Proto-Germanic *jabai or a stem ⟨*(j)a-ba-⟩: an unstressed pronominal stem with an emphatic particle that is compared with Ancient Greek φή (phḗ, “just as”), Avestan bā (“indeed”), Old Church Slavonic бо (bo, “for”) and Lithuanian bà (“yes indeed”).[2][7][6] Wiktionary takes the Germanic form as the dative of a noun meaning “condition, doubt”, much as Grimm explained it from Old High German iba (“doubt”).[1][5]

The coordinating conjunction matches Old Saxon eftha and Old Frisian jeftha, and with ⟨þþ⟩ ettho, Old High German eddo, odo (modern German oder), Old English oþþe, Old Norse eða and Gothic 𐌰𐌹𐌸𐌸𐌰𐌿 (aiþþau, “or”).[2][7][6] Its second element is taken to be 𐌸𐌰𐌿 (þau, “or, than”), the word in doch, probably an old dual form of the second-person pronoun, while the first element is obscure and may be the subordinating conjunction itself.[2][6] De Vries preferred to keep the forms with ⟨þþ⟩ apart, comparing their first element with Latin et (“and”) and ἔτι (éti, “besides”).[7] The variant with ⟨cht⟩ arose by the change of /ft/ to /xt/, as in achter, but did not become general because the short form was so strong.[2]

Earliest recorded meaning

In the 10th-century Wachtendonck Psalms Old Dutch of introduces conditions, as in of gi slapit under mitdon sumnungun “if you sleep amid the assemblies”, and the ONW also finds it in the Lex Salica in the sense “if”.[2][3] Around 1100 the Leiden Willeram has it for “whether”, in tho ich zuifleda, of ich “when I doubted whether I…”.[2][3] The coordinating use “or” is first found in Middle Dutch in the Floyris of 1201–25, where the hero will either die of grief of win back his beloved.[2][8][4]

Semantic evolution

Thirteenth-century Middle Dutch used of, ofte and ochte in both functions, partly through confusion and partly through sound changes in connected speech.[2][4] Ofte became obsolete in modern Dutch but survives in oftewel and in the phrases nooit ofte nimmer and ja ofte nee.[2] The States Bible kept of and oft carefully apart, although 17th-century writers often confused them.[5]

As “if” of was the usual word in Middle Dutch and still current in the 17th century, before indien took its place.[5] By the time of the WNT it was used in that sense only in familiar speech and of a possible future case, as in a letter of 1784: of het echter wat laat wierd “in case it got rather late”.[5] In West Flemish and Zealandic of also means “as, than”, as in hij is groter of ik “he is taller than me”.[9][10]

The coordinating conjunction passed into Frisian, Papiamentu (òf), Negerhollands, Javanese (op), Chinese Malay, Sranan Tongo (ofu) and Aukan (ofoe), and Sranan took the subordinating one too.[11][1]

Timeline

  • 901–1000 – Subordinating of “if” in the Wachtendonck Psalms.[2][8]
  • c. 1100 – Of “whether” in the Leiden Willeram.[2][3]
  • 1201–25 – Coordinating of “or” in the Floyris.[8][2]
  • 1236 – Enen of tue “one or two” in Ghent.[2][4]
  • 1240 – Og glosses Latin vel and sive in a Limburg glossary.[4]
  • 1251–75 – XV iaer ofte meer “fifteen years or more”.[2]
  • 1611 – Of “if” still in general use.[5]
  • 1784 – Of het echter wat laat wierd “in case it got rather late”.[5]

Meanings

Conjunction

  1. (coordinating) or: Wil je thee of koffie?[12][1]
  2. (coordinating) That is, in other words: een velo, of fiets.[12][13]
  3. (coordinating, after a command or warning) Or else: Schiet op, of we missen de bus.[12]
  4. (coordinating, after a negation) Introducing what follows at once: Hij was nog niet binnen of het begon te regenen.[12]
  5. (coordinating, with numbers) About, roughly: een man of twintig.[12][13]
  6. (of … of) Either … or: Of je helpt mee, of je gaat weg.[1]
  7. (subordinating) whether, if: Ik vraag me af of ze nog komt.[12][1]
  8. (subordinating) Concessive, whether or not: Of je het leuk vindt of niet, het moet gebeuren.[12][1]
  9. (subordinating) As if: Hij keek of hij het niet begreep.[12]
  10. (subordinating, informal) After a question word: Weet jij hoe laat of het is?[12]
  11. (subordinating) As a strong affirmation: Of ik dat wil![12]

Word family

  • ofschoon
  • ofwel
  • oftewel
  • alsof
  • doch
  • English if
  • German ob
  • German oder

Usage notes

Van Dale has doen of iemand lucht is “to ignore someone”.[12] The WNT warns that of “if” was in its time restricted to a supposed future case and could no longer stand for a general condition.[5]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Philippa, Marlies; Debrabandere, Frans; Quak, Arend; Schoonheim, Tanneke; Sijs, Nicoline van der (2003–2009), Etymologisch woordenboek van het Nederlands, 4 vols., Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press; online via etymologiebank.nl
  3. ^ a b c d Oudnederlands Woordenboek (2009–), Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal, Leiden; gtb.ivdnt.org
  4. ^ a b c d e Pijnenburg, W. J. J., et al. (2001), Vroegmiddelnederlands woordenboek: woordenboek van het Nederlands van de dertiende eeuw in hoofdzaak op basis van het Corpus-Gysseling, Leiden: Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie; gtb.ivdnt.org
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Vries, Matthias de; Winkel, L. A. te, et al. (1882–1998), Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, 29 vols., 's-Gravenhage / Leiden: Nijhoff / Sijthoff / SDU; supplement 2001; gtb.ivdnt.org
  6. ^ a b c d Franck, Johannes; Wijk, Nicolaas van (1912), Franck's Etymologisch woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal, 2nd ed., 's-Gravenhage: Nijhoff
  7. ^ a b c d Vries, Jan de (1971), Nederlands etymologisch woordenboek, Leiden: Brill
  8. ^ a b c Sijs, Nicoline van der (2001), Chronologisch woordenboek: de ouderdom en herkomst van onze woorden en betekenissen, Amsterdam / Antwerpen: Veen
  9. ^ Debrabandere, Frans (2002), West-Vlaams etymologisch woordenboek: de herkomst van de West-Vlaamse woorden, Amsterdam / Antwerpen: Atlas
  10. ^ Debrabandere, Frans (2007), Zeeuws etymologisch woordenboek: de herkomst van de Zeeuwse woorden, Amsterdam / Antwerpen: Atlas
  11. ^ Sijs, Nicoline van der (2010), Nederlandse woorden wereldwijd, Den Haag: Sdu; with additions from the Uitleenwoordenbank (2015)
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Van Dale Groot woordenboek hedendaags Nederlands (2014), Utrecht / Antwerpen: Van Dale Uitgevers
  13. ^ a b WikiWoordenboek (Dutch Wiktionary), nl.wiktionary.org