in-

in-¹ verb-forming prefix

Pronunciation

• /in/, [iɱ], [iŋ]^[1]

Etymology

The verb-forming prefix is inherited from Latin in-, which had the same functions in Latin; it was taken from the preposition in (“in, into”), which before verbs marked movement into a place or a state.^[2][3][4][1] Where the place was understood as a state or a quality, the prefix came to mean “to put into a state” or “to become of a quality”, as in illūminō and intepēscō, which brought inchoative verbs into the type as well.^[2] DELI adds that the Italian compounds with the prefix leave much uncertain.^[2]

The Latin preposition is inherited from Proto-Italic *en- and goes back to Proto-Indo-European *h₁én (“in”).^[1] The same Latin preposition also gave the intensive prefix of some old conjunctions (imperò, imperciò), which DELI numbers separately: in Late Latin it reinforced adverbs and prepositions weakened by use, by heaping one on another.^[2] Zingarelli explains this use as an extension, in spoken Latin, of the verb-forming prefix.^[4]

Semantic evolution

In verbs that Italian took from Latin or formed later from other verbs (indurre, infondere, immettere) the prefix mostly keeps the sense “in, into” of the Latin preposition, and so it does in some verbs formed from nouns (incarcerare, insaccare, ingabbiare).^[5][4] In most Italian formations from adjectives and nouns it marks a change of state (ingiallire, impallidire, invecchiare), and in a few it only strengthens the word (incominciare, impertanto).^[5][6] Wiktionary marks the intensive use as archaic, regional and rare.^[1]

Old texts often write the unassimilated inl-, inm-, inr- (inluminare), and the doubled nn before a vowel (innalzare, innamorare) parallels the Old Tuscan treatment of the preposition in before a vowel, helped by verbs in which the second n belongs to the stem (innovare).^[5]

Meanings

Prefix

1. Forms verbs from adjectives, meaning “to make or become”: tenero → intenerire, arido → inaridire.^[2][5][6]
2. Forms verbs from nouns, meaning “to put into” or “to provide with”: fiamma → infiammare, carcere → incarcerare, catena → incatenare.^[2][5][7]
3. Forms verbs from other verbs, with the sense “in, into”: mettere → immettere.^[2][4][5]
4. (archaic) Strengthens some old conjunctions and adverbs: imperò, imperciò, impertanto.^[2][4][1]

Word family

• intenerire
• infiammare
• immettere
• incarcerare
• incatenare
• innamorare
• illuminare
• irraggiare
• impallidire
• invecchiare
• incominciare
• imperciò

in-² negative prefix

Pronunciation

• /in/, [iɱ], [iŋ]^[1]

Etymology

The negative prefix is borrowed from Latin in- (“un-, not”), which Italian took over in learned words.^[2][3][6] The Latin prefix comes from Proto-Italic *n̥-, from Proto-Indo-European *n̥- (“not”), the zero grade of the sentence negative *né; it is the same element as the privative Ancient Greek ἀ- (a-) of Greek and Proto-Germanic *un-, whence English un- and German un-.^[3][5][1][8] Devoto notes that in Latin it formed at first only adjectives and adverbs.^[8] Latin writers sometimes used it to render the Greek prefix, and its use grew particularly in the imperial period.^[2]

Semantic evolution

Early Italian had few negatives with the prefix, mostly inherited from Latin (infelice), and denied whole clauses instead or used the prefixes s- and dis- or adverbs such as mal and poco;^[2] Klajn, quoted by DELI, calls this too varied and uncertain a way of expressing simple negation.^[2] New formations of the type appear in Galileo and multiply in the 19th century: Fanfani and Arlìa listed more than fifty, all to be condemned, while Tommaseo–Bellini in 1869 noted only that the prefix “sometimes has privative force”.^[2] Since then the type has grown fast, many words arising as translations of English words with the prefixes in- or un-.^[2] Beside plain negation the prefix can express contrariety (infame, insano) or privation (imberbe, implume).^[5]

Timeline

• 1869 – Tommaseo–Bellini notes the privative force of in- in inarrivabile and impareggiabile.^[2]

Meanings

Prefix

1. Gives a negative sense to adjectives and participles, “not”: utile → inutile, coerente → incoerente, compreso → incompreso.^[2][9][5]
2. Forms negative nouns, mostly from those adjectives (abilità → inabilità) and more rarely from other nouns (colore → incolore, successo → insuccesso).^[2][6][5]
3. Expresses contrariety or privation: infame, imberbe.^[5]

Word family

• inutile
• invisibile
• incapace
• incoerente
• illogico
• immortale
• irregolare
• impossibile
• infelice
• inabile
• incolore
• insuccesso