ἀρετή

Forms

ᾰ̓ρετή (aretḗ) f (genitive ᾰ̓ρετῆς); first declension^[1] Doric ἀρετά (aretá), Aeolic ἀρέτα (aréta).^[2]

Etymology

The formation of the word is not clear.^[3][4] Beekes rejects a link with ἀρέσκω (aréskō, “to please”) on grounds of meaning and connects it rather with ἀρείων (areíōn, “better”) and ἄρειος (áreios), and he finds the connection with ἀραρίσκω (ararískō, “to fit together”) very remote.^[5] Chantraine also sees no clear link in meaning with the verb and accepts the comparison with the adjective and the prefix ἀρι- (ari-).^[4] Frisk allows either a primary formation from the stem of the verb or, better for the meaning, a secondary one from the stem of the adjective, and records Prellwitz's guess that it is an abstract noun "being good" from a word for "fitting, good".^[3] Wiktionary takes it to be from Proto-Indo-European *h₂rh₁téh₂, from the root Proto-Indo-European *h₂erh₁- (“to arrange, fit”), which the Leiden database also gives as its origin.^[1][5]

Ancient writers offered several derivations: Plato's Cratylus explains it as what "always flows" unimpeded, ἀεί (aeí) and ῥέω (rhéō), and the Byzantine etymologica derive it from αἱρετός (hairetós, “chosen”), as what everyone chooses, or from a form meaning "pleasing".^[6]

Earliest recorded meaning

It is found from Homer on as the excellence of a person, chiefly the qualities of a man: the speed of a runner's feet, skill in fighting and in counsel.^[7][2] The Iliad also uses it of the gods, whose excellence is greater than that of men, and the Odyssey of women.^[7]

Semantic evolution

The Homeric hero lives and dies to embody the superiority the word names.^[4] In the city-state this excellence became civic, and with Plato it entered a moral and philosophical system, where it is linked with ἐπιστήμη (epistḗmē, “knowledge”).^[4] Already in Hesiod and Sappho it could mean the fame that rewards excellence,^[7][2] and the same poets also use it for virtue as opposed to κακία (kakía, “vice”).^[2] Aristotle defines it as a kind of completion and treats moral virtue as a mean between two vices.^[7][2]

The word was not limited to people: Herodotus and Thucydides speak of the excellence of land, meaning its fertility, and Herodotus and Plato of the excellence of horses, dogs and tools.^[7][2] In Thucydides it can also be a service done to someone,^[7] and it is frequent in honorary inscriptions in the phrase "for the sake of excellence".^[7] In Hellenistic Greek the plural names the glorious deeds and miracles of the gods, in inscriptions, in Strabo and in the First Epistle of Peter,^[7] and this sense gave the compound ἀρεταλογία (aretalogía), a recital of divine miracles.^[4] In the papyri it is used as a title of address, "your worship".^[7]

Medieval vernacular Greek used it for kindness, an advantage or merit, and skill.^[8] Modern Greek αρετή (aretí) is a learned form of the ancient word, for a good quality and for virtue.^[9]

Timeline

• Homer – The Iliad uses it for the excellence of a warrior, of a runner and of the gods.^[7][2]
• Before the 6th century BC – Hesiod's Works and Days says that excellence and renown follow wealth.^[7][10]
• 5th century BC – Herodotus uses it for the quality of land and of a horse.^[7][10]
• 5th century BC – Thucydides uses it for good service done to others.^[7][10]
• 5th–4th century BC – Prodicus personifies Virtue.^[7][10]
• 4th century BC – Aristotle defines it as a kind of completion and as the mean between vices.^[7][2][10]
• 1st century BC to 1st century AD – Strabo uses the plural for the miracles of a god.^[7][10]
• 1100–1669 – Vernacular texts use it for kindness, merit and skill.^[8]
• Modern Greek – The learned αρετή (aretí) means a good quality and virtue.^[9]

Meanings

Noun

1. Excellence of any kind; in Homer especially manly prowess, in running, fighting or counsel.^[7][2]
2. Valour, bravery; a brave deed.^[2][7]
3. Moral excellence, virtue, the opposite of κακία (kakía); in philosophy, the virtues as forms of excellence.^[2][7]
4. The good quality of an animal or thing: the speed of a horse, the fertility of land, the quality of wool.^[7][2]
5. Good service or merit shown towards someone.^[7][2]
6. Prosperity.^[7][2]
7. The reward of excellence: distinction, fame; in the plural, glories.^[7][2]
8. (Koine) In the plural, of the gods: glorious deeds, miracles.^[7]
9. (capitalised) Virtue personified.^[7]
10. (Koine, papyri) A title of address: "your worship".^[7]
11. A war engine.^[7]
12. A medical plaster.^[7]

Word family

• ἀρετάω (aretáō)
• ἀρεταλογία (aretalogía)

Related words

• ἀρείων (areíōn)
• ἀραρίσκω (ararískō)

References

1. ^ a b c d e Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Diggle, James, et al., eds. (2021), The Cambridge Greek Lexicon, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3. ^ a b Frisk, Hjalmar (1960–1972), Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 3 vols, Heidelberg: Carl Winter
4. ^ a b c d e Chantraine, Pierre (2009), Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque: histoire des mots, new ed. with a supplement (Chroniques d'étymologie grecque 1–10), Paris: Klincksieck
5. ^ a b Beekes, Robert S. P. (2010), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, with the assistance of Lucien van Beek, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 10, Leiden; Boston: Brill
6. ^ Etygram: ancient etymologies of Greek words, CEPAM, Université Côte d'Azur, http://appsweb-cepam.unice.fr/etygram
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z 27 28 Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; Jones, Henry Stuart (1940), A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press
8. ^ a b Kriaras, Emmanuel, Επιτομή του Λεξικού της μεσαιωνικής ελληνικής δημώδους γραμματείας 1100–1669, Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, https://www.greek-language.gr
9. ^ a b Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών (Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη) (1998), Λεξικό της κοινής νεοελληνικής, Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
10. ^ a b c d e f Rodríguez Adrados, Francisco, et al., eds. (1980–), Diccionario Griego-Español, Madrid: CSIC, http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge