*skulaną

Reconstruction

The infinitive is *skulaną in Ringe and Wiktionary,^[1][2] *skulan in Köbler;^[3] Kroonen cites the verb by its stem *skulan-.^[4] Orel heads it by the third person singular *skala.^[5]

Etymology

Wiktionary has it from Proto-Indo-European *skel- (“to be obligated, owe, be guilty”);^[2] LIV sets up a root *(s)kel- "to become guilty", with a question mark, known only from Germanic and Baltic.^[6] Kroonen labels the formation North European, from *skól-e-.^[4]

Morphology

A preterite-present verb.^[4][3] Ringe gives the principal parts *skulaną, *skal, *skuldē, *skuldaz "owe", among the preterite-presents made to light roots with an original internal *e.^[1] Kroonen reconstructs the third person singular *skale and plural *skulunþ, from *skol-e and *skl-nt.^[4] LIV takes the Germanic present as an old perfect, *(s)ke-(s)kól-, and the Baltic verb as a present that took on a stative meaning.^[6] Mailhammer lists the root under ablaut class IV, with an uncertain Indo-European etymology.^[7]

Evidence

The verb is attested in all three branches: Gothic 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌽 (skulan) in Gothic, Old Norse skulu in Old Norse, and Old English sculan, Old Frisian skela, Old Saxon skulan and Old High German scolan in West Germanic.^[4] In Gothic the infinitive occurs at Mark 14:64 and the first person Gothic 𐍃𐌺𐌰𐌻 (skal) at John 8:26; the old past participle survives in Gothic 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌳𐍃 (skulds), and its neuter in the phrase for "it is permitted".^[8][1] Outside Germanic the root is found only in Baltic: Lithuanian skelėti (“to owe”) and Old Prussian skellānts (“guilty”).^[8][4][5] In Old High German the spelling with sk- is regular until the 11th century; the later s- is explained by the loss of k in a word unstressed in the sentence, which EWA applies to the other Germanic languages too.^[9]

Competing analyses

Feist compared Latin scelus (“crime”) and Old Indic words for "stumble", and rejected Meringer's link with Lithuanian words for "split".^[10] Lehmann thinks the Latin word probably unrelated and also rejects the "split" root, and limits the cognates to Baltic.^[8] Orel lists Zupitza's comparison with the Latin word and Meringer's with Lithuanian skélti (“to split”) among the older views.^[5] Kroonen notes that the Old Norse infinitive ending -u is analogical after the third person plural skulu.^[4]

Meanings

1. to owe, to be obliged to^[4][2]
2. shall, must, to have to^[4][3][2]
3. will, to be going to^[2]

Gothic used the verb for "to owe, be indebted",^[4] and also as a future auxiliary;^[8] Old High German had a wide range from "owe, be guilty" to "must, may, will".^[9]

Derivatives

• *skulô "debtor", a zero-grade agentive n-stem;^[11] Orel writes *skulōn,^[12] Casaretto *skul-an-, behind Gothic 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰 (skula).^[13]
• *skuldiz "debt, guilt", a ti-stem to the root;^[4][14] Orel writes *skulđiz.^[15]
• *skulđaz "obligatory, due", the participle, in Orel.^[16]

Reflexes

• Gothic: 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌽 (skulan, “to owe, to have to”)^[10][8]
• Old Norse: skulu (“shall”)^[17]
• Old English: sculan (“shall, to owe”)^[18]
• Old Frisian: skela (“shall, must, may, will”)^[19]
• Old Saxon: skulan (“shall, must, will”)^[20]
• Old Dutch: sulan (“shall”), in Köbler's list^[3]
• Old High German: skulan (“shall, must, to owe”)^[9]

References

1. ^ a b c Ringe, Don (2017), From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 291
2. ^ a b c d e Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org, p. s.v. *skulaną
3. ^ a b c d Köbler, Gerhard (2014), Germanisches Wörterbuch, 5th ed., online, koeblergerhard.de/wikiling, p. s.v. *skulan
4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Kroonen, Guus (2013), Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 11, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. 450
5. ^ a b c Orel, Vladimir (2003), A Handbook of Germanic Etymology, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. s.v. *skala
6. ^ a b Rix, Helmut, et al. (2001), Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed., Wiesbaden: Reichert, p. s.v. 1. *skel-
7. ^ Mailhammer, Robert (2007), The Germanic Strong Verbs: Foundations and Development of a New System, Trends in Linguistics 183, Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter, p. 221
8. ^ a b c d e Lehmann, Winfred P. (1986), A Gothic Etymological Dictionary, based on the third edition of Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprache by Sigmund Feist, Leiden: Brill, p. S96
9. ^ a b c Lloyd, Albert L.; Springer, Otto; Lühr, Rosemarie, et al. (1988–), Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht; online ewa.saw-leipzig.de, p. s.v. skulan
10. ^ a b Feist, Sigmund (1939), Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprache, 3rd ed., Leiden: Brill, p. 258
11. ^ Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org, p. s.v. *skulô
12. ^ Orel, Vladimir (2003), A Handbook of Germanic Etymology, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. s.v. *skulōn
13. ^ Casaretto, Antje (2004), Nominale Wortbildung der gotischen Sprache: Die Derivation der Substantive, Heidelberg: Winter, p. s.v. skula
14. ^ Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org, p. s.v. *skuldiz
15. ^ Orel, Vladimir (2003), A Handbook of Germanic Etymology, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. s.v. *skulđiz
16. ^ Orel, Vladimir (2003), A Handbook of Germanic Etymology, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. s.v. *skulđaz
17. ^ de Vries, Jan (1977), Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2nd ed., Leiden: Brill, p. 507
18. ^ Holthausen, Ferdinand (1934), Altenglisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Heidelberg: Carl Winter, p. s.v. sculan
19. ^ Hofmann, Dietrich; Popkema, Anne Tjerk (2008), Altfriesisches Handwörterbuch, Heidelberg: Carl Winter, p. s.v. skela
20. ^ Köbler, Gerhard (2014), Altsächsisches Wörterbuch, 5th ed., online, koeblergerhard.de/wikiling, p. s.v. skulan