-ed

-ed¹ past tense

Etymology

The suffix of the past tense is inherited from Middle English -ede, also -de,^[2][1][3] inherited from Old English -de, also -ede, -ode and -ade,^[2][4][5][3] made up of the thematic vowel of a class of weak verbs and the past ending of weak verbs.^[2] Dictionary.com calls its further origin disputed.^[5]

Semantic evolution

In Middle English the fuller ending absorbed the shorter one in most verbs, but many verbs resisted, which is why there are irregular forms such as kept and left.^[1][6] Old English already had first and third person past forms in -te, and final consonants have tended to weaken, so that many forms are spelled with -ed but pronounced with /t/.^[6]

Meanings

Suffix

1. Forming the past tense of regular verbs: She painted the door.^[4][2][3]

-ed² past participle

Etymology

The suffix of the past participle is inherited from Middle English -ed,^[2][1] inherited from Old English -ed, also -od and -ad,^[7][6][8][2] in which the vowel marks the class of the weak verb and the suffix proper is -d,^[7][8][9] from Proto-Germanic *-ōdaz and *-idaz,^[1] from Proto-Indo-European *-to-.^[6][8] It is cognate with Old High German -t, German -t and Old Norse -þr, and outside Germanic with Latin -tus and Ancient Greek -τός (-tós).^[7][6][2]

Earliest recorded meaning

Some Old English verbs added the suffix straight to the root, with no vowel, giving -d or, after a voiceless consonant, -t, as in seald (“sold”) and boht (“bought”).^[7][8]

Semantic evolution

In Middle English the vowelled forms were levelled to -ed.^[7][8][6] The spelling remains, but the pronunciation is now normally /d/, or /t/ after a voiceless consonant; /ɪd/ is regular in ordinary speech only after t and d.^[7][8] The full form survives in verse and in the public reading of the Bible and the liturgy, which has kept it in adjectives such as blessed, cursed and beloved,^[7][8][6] and it separates the adjective learned from the participle.^[7][8] From the 16th to the 18th century the suffix was often written -t after a voiceless consonant, as in jumpt and whipt.^[7] Some participles have two forms, as with gilded and gilt, and burned and burnt.^[6][7]

Timeline

• Middle English – vowelled forms levelled to -ed.^[7][8]
• 16th–18th century – frequent spellings in -t: jumpt, whipt, stept.^[7]
• late 20th century – variable pronunciations recorded in some words, influenced by adverbs in -edly.^[7]

Meanings

Suffix

1. Forming the past participle of regular verbs: The door was painted.^[4][2][7]
2. Forming adjectives from such participles: a retired teacher.^[10][2]

Word family

• beloved
• blessed
• learned

-ed³ having, provided with

Etymology

The suffix of adjectives from nouns is inherited from Middle English -ed,^[1][7] inherited from Old English -ede,^[8][10][5] also -od,^[1] from Proto-Germanic *-ōdaz, with Wiktionary tracing it further to Proto-Indo-European *-eh₂tos.^[1][8] It is cognate with Old Saxon -ôdi, and Old Norse had similar adjectives from nouns, such as eygðr (“eyed”) and hyrndr (“horned”).^[7][9] Its function matches that of Latin -tus in caudātus (“tailed”) and aurītus (“eared”), and the OED thinks the Germanic base may be related to that of the past participle suffix.^[7][8]

Earliest recorded meaning

Old English has it in hōcede (“hooked”) and hringede (“ringed”), and in ān-ēaged (“one-eyed”).^[8][9]

Semantic evolution

It is now added without restriction to nouns.^[8][7] Barnhart notes that words such as talented and cultured nevertheless drew objections from Coleridge and others, in spite of the old history of the type.^[9] Johnson complained in 1779 of the "cultured" plain, calling it a recent practice.^[7]

Meanings

Suffix

1. Forming adjectives from nouns, meaning having, provided with or characterized by something: bearded, salaried, long-legged.^[4][7][9]

Word family

• hooked
• ringed
• talented
• cultured