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како

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Forms

како (kako) adverb, conjunction[1][2] Strengthened with the particle -же: какоже.[3]

Etymology

It is inherited from Proto-Slavic *kako (“how”), beside the pronoun Proto-Slavic *kakъ (“what kind of”) (OCS какъ).[3][4][5] The adverb is found throughout Slavic: Russian как (kak), Bulgarian как (kak), Macedonian како (kako), Serbo-Croatian kako, Slovene kako, Upper Sorbian kak and Lower Sorbian kak.[3][4] Both belong to the Indo-European interrogative stem Proto-Indo-European *kʷo-, that of къто.[3][6]

How the adverb and the pronoun are related is disputed.[3][7] Most often the pronoun is taken as primary and како as its neuter nominative-accusative singular (Vondrák, Sławski, Polański); Wiktionary too derives *kako from *kakъ.[3][7][4] ESJS, with Kopečný and the ESSJa, takes the adverb as primary, because it is far better attested and has parallels in adverbs such as камо and тамо that have no adjective beside them.[3][7] ESJS records three derivations: most often from an Indo-European instrumental of the stem with the same pronominal stem added; or a Slavic feminine pronoun form with a particle (Isačenko); or, for the pronoun, the bare stem with a suffix (Vaillant).[3] For the pronoun Derksen gives Proto-Indo-European *kʷō-ko- and compares Lithuanian kõks (“what kind of”), which ESJS takes either as formed after jóks (“any”) or as a loan from East Slavic.[5][3] The comparison with Old Irish cách (“each”) and Welsh pawb (“everyone”), made by Berneker and Vasmer, is doubtful according to ESJS.[8][3]

Earliest recorded meaning

It is frequent in the oldest manuscripts (more than 400 occurrences in the SNSP) and translates Ancient Greek πῶς (pôs) and Ancient Greek ὅπως (hópōs).[9][1] In the Codex Zographensis and the Codex Marianus: како можете добро творити зьли сѫште “how can you do good, being evil?” (Mt 12, 34).[9]

Semantic evolution

As an interrogative adverb it asks about the manner, “how”, and in exclamations it means “how much” (виждь како любл҄ѣаше і “see how he loved him”, J 11, 36).[1][9] It also expresses indignation, “how is it that, why”, and introduces direct speech, for ὅτι (Mt 16, 7).[1] As an indefinite adverb it means “somehow”, as in аще како “if somehow” (Ph 3, 11), and in да како “indeed, certainly” and ѥда како “lest”.[1][2][10] As a conjunction it means “that” after verbs of seeing (възьрите на птицѧ небесьскꙑѩ како не сѣѭтъ, Mt 6, 26 Zogr, where the Codex Marianus has ѣко), “as, like”, and in the pair како – како ли “both – and”.[1]

The shortened Russian как (kak) is first recorded in a charter of about 1330.[11] In Church Slavonic како is also the name of the letter К.[12][13]

Timeline

  • End of the 9th – beginning of the 10th century – the Euchologium Sinaiticum uses како for πῶς.[14]
  • About 1330 – Russian как first appears, in a charter.[11]
  • 14th century – the Serbian Athonite translation of Gregory of Nyssa renders πῶς and ὅπως with како.[14]
  • 1882–1885 – Giltebrandt lists the New Testament uses of ка́кѡ for πῶς, ὅπως and πόθεν.[15]

Meanings

Adverb

  1. how, in what way; for πῶς, ὅπως.[1][9][2]
  2. In exclamations: how much, how greatly.[9]
  3. Expressing indignation: how is it that, why.[1][9]
  4. Introducing direct speech; for ὅτι.[1]
  5. Somehow, in some way; for πως.[1]

Conjunction

  1. After verbs of seeing or perceiving: that, how; for ὅτι.[1][9]
  2. As, like.[1]
  3. како – како ли: both – and.[1]

Word family

  • какоже
  • нѣкако
  • никакоже

Usage notes

In Church Slavonic како is also the name of the letter К.[12][13]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kurz, Josef; Hauptová, Zoe (eds.) (1958–1997), Slovník jazyka staroslověnského / Lexicon linguae palaeoslovenicae, 4 vols. + supplements, Praha: Academia; digital ed. gorazd.org
  2. ^ a b c Sadnik, Linda; Aitzetmüller, Rudolf (1955), Handwörterbuch zu den altkirchenslavischen Texten, Heidelberg: Winter / 's-Gravenhage: Mouton
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Havlová, Eva; Erhart, Adolf; Janyšková, Ilona (eds.) (1989–2022), Etymologický slovník jazyka staroslověnského, 21 fascicles, Praha: Academia / Brno: Tribun EU, p. 298
  4. ^ a b c Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org
  5. ^ a b Derksen, Rick (2008), Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 4, Leiden / Boston: Brill, p. 219
  6. ^ Sadnik, Linda; Aitzetmüller, Rudolf (1955), Handwörterbuch zu den altkirchenslavischen Texten, Heidelberg: Winter / 's-Gravenhage: Mouton, p. 258
  7. ^ a b c Sławski, Franciszek; Boryś, Wiesław et al. (eds.) (1974–2024), Słownik prasłowiański, vols. I–VIII, X–XI, Wrocław: Ossolineum / Warszawa: Instytut Slawistyki PAN, p. X, 33
  8. ^ Vasmer, Max (1964–1973), Ètimologičeskij slovar' russkogo jazyka, transl. and suppl. by O. N. Trubačev, 4 vols., Moskva: Progress, p. 2, 163
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Slovník nejstarších staroslověnských památek (digital ed., Gorazd, Slovanský ústav AV ČR, gorazd.org); cf. Cejtlin, R. M.; Večerka, R.; Blagova, É. (eds.) (1994), Staroslavjanskij slovar' (po rukopisjam X–XI vekov), Moskva: Russkij jazyk
  10. ^ Swan, Oscar E. (2008), Old Church Slavic Glossary, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh; digital ed. with N. H. Reimer, Old Church Slavonic Dictionary
  11. ^ a b Vasmer, Max (1964–1973), Ètimologičeskij slovar' russkogo jazyka, transl. and suppl. by O. N. Trubačev, 4 vols., Moskva: Progress, p. 2, 162
  12. ^ a b Miklosich, Franz (1862–1865), Lexicon palaeoslovenico-graeco-latinum emendatum auctum, Vindobonae: Braumüller
  13. ^ a b D'jačenko, Grigorij (1899), Polnyj cerkovno-slavjanskij slovar', Moskva
  14. ^ a b SlaVaComp Metaglossar Griechisch–Kirchenslavisch, Universität Freiburg, slavistik-portal.de
  15. ^ Gil'tebrandt, P. A. (1882–1885), Spravočnyj i ob''jasnitel'nyj slovar' k Novomu Zavetu, 6 vols., Sankt-Peterburg